The Country & People of Syria

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History
Situated on trade and military routes between the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia, Syria (which historically included all of modern Syria and Lebanon, and parts of Israel, Jordan, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia) has always been an object of foreign conquest.

Settled (2100 BC) by the Amorites, a Semitic people from the Arabian peninsula, it fell to the Hittites (15th–13th cent BC), the Assyrians and Babylonians (11th–6th cent. BC), the Persians (6th–4th cent. BC), and the Greeks (333 BC).

Syria was Hellenized by the Seleucids and had fallen to Rome by 63 BC After a period of Byzantine rule (5th–7th cent. AD) Syria was conquered (633–40) by Muslim Arabs. Most Syrians converted to Islam, and Damascus, as the usual capital of the Umayyad caliph (661–750), became the center of the Islamic world. The area was later ruled by the Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, Saladin, and the Mamluks. Christians also came to Syria on the Crusades (11th–14th cent.).

It was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1516 until the end of World War I, and in 1920 France received a League of Nations mandate over the Levant States (roughly modern Syria and Lebanon).

During World War II Free French forces granted (1944) independence to Syria, but French troops did not leave until 1946. Syria joined with Egypt in the United Arab Republic in 1958, but withdrew in 1961. Independent Syria has been characterized by economic growth, political instability, and hostility toward Israel. In 1981 Israel exacerbated the situation by annexing the Golan Heights, captured from Syria in the Six-Day War (1967).

Syrian troops entered Lebanon in 1976, ostensibly to quell civil strife, and they continue to maintain a presence in that country.

During the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Syria suffered severe losses in combat with Israeli forces. The ruling Ba'ath party, which came to power in a 1963 coup, maintains a policy of socialism and Arab nationalism.

In the 1980s Syria experienced internal unrest, moved closer to the USSR, espoused hard-line Arab positions, and was linked to international terrorists. By 1990, however, the country was trying to improve relations with Western nations.

In 1991 Syria contributed 20,000 soldiers to the international coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War and in the same year it participated in initial peace talks with Israel. Although talks broke off in 1996, Syria appeared more willing to reopen negotiations following the installation of a Labor government in Israel in 1999.

Talks resumed in Dec. 1999, but after secret details concerning Syrian concessions were published (Jan. 2000) in Israel, Syria took a harder line and talks stalled.

After Assad died suddenly in June 2000, his son, Bashar al-Assad, who had been groomed to succeed his father since 1994, became president. The son was regarded as an advocate of a free-market economy and political change, but movement toward both has proceeded slowly and has at times been reversed or hindered. Syria strongly opposed the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq and was accused by U.S. government officials of supplying aid to Iraq and helping Iraqi officials to escape from U.S. forces. A new cabinet with a mandate to push reforms forward was appointed in Sept., 2003.

In October, Israel struck at what it called a terrorist training base in Syria in retaliation for suicide-bombing attacks in Israel; it was the first Israeli strike against Syrian territory in 20 years.

Simmering grievances among the nation’s Kurds erupted into rare antigovernment protests in NE Syria in Mar., 2004. In August and September Syria blatantly forced Lebanon to extend President Lahoud’s term, an act that was denounced by the UN Security Council.

The Feb., 2005, assassination of former Lebanese prime minister Rafik Hariri, who had opposed Syrian interference in Lebanon, led to anti-Syrian demonstrations in Lebanon and increased international pressure on Syria. Syria subsequently agreed to withdraw from Lebanon, and by the end of Apr., 2005, the withdrawal was completed.

A UN investigation into Hariri’s killing implicated senior Syrian and Lebanese officials, but Syria refused to allow UN investigators to interview high-ranking Syrian officials, leading the Security Council to call unanimously for Syria to cooperate. A former Syrian vice president, Abdul Halim Khaddam, stated (Dec., 2005) that Syria had threatened Hariri and asserted that the assassination could not have happened without the support of high-ranking Syrian officials. (Khaddam, residing in Paris, also called for Assad to be removed from office.)

Assad was reelected in May, 2007, by referendum (he was the only candidate). In Sept., 2007, the Israeli air force attacked a military site in N Syria that may have been a nuclear facility under construction. International Atomic Energy Agency reports (2008, 2009) said that evidence indicated that the facility could have been a nuclear reactor, and called on Syria to cooperate, but Syria said the installation was a missile facilty. In June, 2009, the IAEA said it had found traces of processed uranium at another site.

An Arab League summit held in Syria in Mar., 2008, was attended by only half the Arab heads of state, as many sent lower-ranking officials as a protest against Syria's backing of Hezbollah and its allies in Lebanon. In Oct., 2008, U.S. forces launched a raid into Syria from Iraq in which U.S. sources claimed a key figure in the Iraq insurgency was killed; Syria denounced the attack, saying only civilians were killed, and mounted demonstrations against the attack

Beginning in Mar., 2011, Syria faced ongoing antigovernment demonstrations in a number of cities similar to those in other parts of the Arab world. The protests were especially persistent early on in the southern city of Deraa; Homs, Hama, and many other locations subsequently became centers of protest. Only Damascus and Aleppo were largely free of protests. The government issued some concessions in response, including granting citizenship to thousands of Kurds in NE Syria, ending the 48-year state of emergency, and (later) allowing some opposition parties, but it also accused its opponents of armed insurrection and violently suppressed protests. There also were anti-Alawite attacks by government opponents. Antigovernment demonstrations nonetheless continued, and the unrest turned into civil war as some troops defected and fought against government forces and others also took up arms.

In September leaders of opposition groups announced the formation of the national council, but the opposition continued to lack unity and the council was dominated by exile groups. The Arab League suspended Syria's membership and imposed some economic sanctions in November; other nations also imposed sanctions in 2011 and 2012. In December, Arab League monitors entered Syria to oversee an agreement intended to end the violence, but they had no effect on the situation. The violence continued in 2012, with deadly fighting in many urban areas, including Damascus and Aleppo. Government forces were accused of brutally targeting civilians and of killing them in mass executions.

The 90% vote for a new constitution (Feb., 2012) was denounced by the opposition as a sham; the opposition also boycotted the May parliamentary elections. Former UN head Kofi Annan negotiated a cease-fire in April, but it never really took effect, and the associated UN observers withdrew in August. Relations with Turkey, which was critical of Assad and supportive of Turkmen rebels, became tense after a Turkish fighter jet that crossed into Syrian airspace was downed. In October, cross-border fire into Turkey led to recurring retaliatory bombardment; there were similar incidents with Jordan and Israel. Subsequently occasional Israeli air strikes in Syria that were said to be directed at military supplies for Hezbollah.

Opposition fighters remained ethnically and religiously fragmented. A more broadly based opposition National Coalition was formed in Nov., 2012, as a result of international pressure on opposition groups, but forces aligned with it subsequently became less significant. Kurdish groups sought to establish an autonomous Kurdish area. Hardline Islamist groups, not part of the coalition, became increasingly significant, and often fought other rebels. Shiite fighters from other nations, especially Lebanese Hezbollah , became a significant component of government-aligned forces in 2013.

In June, 2014, the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), a Sunni Islamist rebel group, also launched an offensive in Iraq that gave it control of a large territory in N and E Syria and in NW Iraq; it declared a caliphate as the Islamic State (IS) and became the dominant rebel group in Syria. IS advances and atrocities in Iraq and Syria in 2014 led to U.S. air strikes against it; the first strikes in Syria began in September, and the United States subsequently also targeted other Islamist militant groups in Syria. Other nations subsequently also targeted IS forces with air strikes.

Both government and rebel forces were accused of using chemical weapons. An Aug., 2013, attack in Damascus in which more than 1,300 died was linked by Western governments to the government. Under threat of U.S. attack, the Assad regime agreed to the supervised destruction of its chemical weapons stockpile, most which was accomplished by Sept., 2014, but it was unclear if Syria had omitted any weapons. A Dec., 2013, UN report confirmed that the August attack involved chemical weapons, and found credible evidence of the weapons' use in prior incidents. Beginning in 2014, there were accusations of chlorine gas attacks by the Syrian government; chlorine had not been among the weapons Syria had to declare. Both sides in the conflict have been accused by human-rights groups of committing war crimes.

Assad was reelected in a vote that occurred (June, 2014) during the civil war and involved minor opponents. He was reported to have won 89% of the vote, with a 73% turnout (voting only occurred in government-controlled areas). The election and result were criticized by the opposition and many foreign governments as a sham.

By mid-2015, some 200,000 (and possibly more than 300,000) were believed to have died in four years of fighting. Many people had been arrested or had disappeared while in government or rebel custody, and some 4.3 million had fled the country and 7.6 million were displaced inside Syria. The government controlled or contested much of E Syria, having made gains there since 2013, while various rebel groups were in control mainly in the north and west. In 2015 Syrian Kurds and their Arab and other rebel allies made advances, against the IS, but the Kurds also found themselves coming under occasional attack from Turkish forces. In Sept., 2015, Russia began air strikes in Syria against rebels more generally, to bolster Assad and support his forces, which had suffered reverses. In November, Turkey shot down a Russian fighter jet it claimed had violated its airspace despite warnings.

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About Syria

All Referer Earth & environment, history, literature & arts, people, places, plants & animals, religion, science & technology, sports & everyday life....

AME Info Geography, people, government, economy, communication, transportation

ArabInfo Overview, government, history, links

ArabNet Overview, history, geography, business, culture, government, transport, tour guide, links

Atlapedia Geography, climate, people, demography, religion, education, modern history, currency, other information....

BBC Country Profile Key facts, figures and dates

Britannica.Com Country info, land, people, economy, society, government, history, culture, maps, statistics, links....

Cafe-Syria Complete guide on the Country of Syria

CIA World Factbook Map, geography, people, government, economy, communications, transportation, military, issues

Cradle of Civilizations Encyclopedia Americana, Syria, Damascus, land & natural resources, people, economy, history, government....

Country Reports Economy, defense, geography, government, people, anthem, map, news, weather, links....

Damascus Online Everything Syrian! Damascus, photo gallery, encyclopedia, Syrian history, proverbs....

Encarta OnLine Info, land & resources, population, economy, government, history, other related items, links....

Encyclopaedia of the Orient Geography, politics, economy, health, education, religion, people, history, anthem, cities....

Expedia Almanac, fast facts, communications, on business, health & safety, transportation, traveler's directory

Hello Syria News, events, history, arts and traditions, tourism, attractions and general daily life

Info Please General info, map, geography, government, history, land & people....

MidEast.Com Damascus, Aleppo, Latkaia, Palmyra, Homs, Hama, Zabadani, Bosra, Banyas, Tartus, Arwad....

Syria - OnLine News, business, technology, culture, education, tourism, shopping, government, entertainment

Qamishly.Com People & Culture, songs of different ethnic groups, news....

Syria Today Government, history, politics, investment, industry, geography, trade....

Nation By Nation Info, government, human rights, news, geography, history, people, links....

US Library of Congress Everything you ever wanted to know about Syria....

World66 General info, cities, history, people, economy, getting around, getting there, links....

Cities, Towns, Municipalities & Places

Aleppo The rehabilitation of Old Aleppo - Media, overview, details....

Hama Everything about it.....

Marmarita Pictures, community, live radio, carnival....

Swaida History, Swaida & Shaba museums, towns & places, photos, web directory, Syria info....

Zaidal A village located eastern to Homs

World Heritage Cities Ancient City of Aleppo - Inside Aleppo's seven gates is an urban grid of Hellenistic inspiration

World Heritage Cities Ancient City of Bosra - Monuments of volcanic stone, constructed over a period of two millennia

World Heritage Cities Ancient City of Damascus - Covered markets, caravan enclosures, palaces, minarets and cupolas

World Monuments Endangered sites: The Citadel of Aleppo

World Monuments Endangered sites: Damascus Old City & Saddle Souk

Flag, Maps, Useful Information....

Cellular News Cellular coverage map, systems, frequencies....

Ethnologue Languages

Flag Explanation, historical, military & political flags, subdivisions, national emblem....

World Atlas A brief description, fast facts, flag, landforms, maps, traveller info, weather

World Clock Local time, sunrise, sunset, GMT offset, daylight saving....

World Paper Money Paper currency since 1963

Business and Economy

Arab Development Center Providing information regarding the Syrian market.

Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Fact sheet (pdf) & travel information....

Bilateral Relations with Japan Diplomatic, investment, economic cooperation, residents....

Damascus Chamber Of Industry Industrial environment, investment, job & opportunities....

Federationof Syrian Chambers of Commerce Looks after commercial , economic and trade activities

MBendi Business information, news, industries, events

Muslim Trade Network Trade reference directory and guide....

Ports Focus Ports, harbours, marinas....

Syria and the IMF Position in the fund, reports....

Syria Report Business, economy, finance nes. (Need to subscribe)

Syrian Economic Society Society board & members, conferences, archives....

US Department of Energy Analysis, information, oil, natural gas, coal, electricity....

US Department of State Country commercial guide 2001 (pdf)

World Bank Overview, news & events, data & statistics, publications & reports, development topics, projects & programs, Public Information Center

Banks

Directories, Job Opportunities

Dalylak Directory sorted in alphabetical order and catagories, directory of Arab newspapers....

Elite Human resources consultations....

Made in Syria Conducting business within Syria. A directory of Syrian-owned companies worldwide.

Syria Mart Commercial & industrial business directory, country & tourist info, economy, cultural & sport news....

Syria Noble Business, arts and tourism directories, news, important websites....

Visit Syria Companies' websites, business & business guide

Future Corp. Provides Syrian Manpower

Investment & Promotion....

AL Salam International Conferences and Exhibitions. Organizing economic events and foreign exhibitions that aim to increase the Syrian exports

Al Yaman Fairs Exhibitions organizers

Atassi for Exhibitions & Marketing Exhibitions organizers

Art, Culture & Sport

Al-Mashriq - The Levant Cultural riches & gateway

Fannanin Syrian arts & artists in the fields of theatre, cinema,TV, song, music and all supporting disciplines

Art, Literature, Photography, Cinema....

Assad Dawwara Author of short stories. Window on Arabic and international works from other writers....

Hasan Yousef Author, journalist - Short stories, TV, theater, cinema, pictures of Syria....

Mahmoud Hesso Painter. True internal visions emerging from the splendor of humanistic poetic agricultural society

Sahar Al-Jajeh Painter. Oil colours in different styles among them realism, impressionism, expressionism and abstract

Syria Art Paintings, graphics, photography, sculptures. Artists and their work

Images of Syria Ancient cities, mosque-rich cities, dead cities and fortresses....

Robert Bremec Syria Photo Diary - Cities & places

Travel Photos Aleppo - Hama - Al-Bara - Serjilla - Apamea - Ugarit - Qala'at Marqab - Krak des Chevaliers - Palmyra - Damascus

Arab Film Distribution - Syria Features a wide range of narrative films, documentaries, visual essays and ethnographic films

Internet Movie Database Movie & TV reports

Music, Song & Dance....

Husain Sabsaby Oud player. Music in images, about the oud....

Cultural, Scientific, Environmental, Sporting Entities & Info

La Syrie An initiative of the French- Syrian friendship group of the French Senate

Animal Info Threatened species, environmental and social data

AquaStat Information on quantity and quality of freshwater and its availability

BirdLife To determine the priorities for bird conservation in the region

Syrian Soccer Results, photo gallery, clubs, players....

Education

Arab European University An institution of higher education and academic research

WorldWide Classroom University & adult education, K12 & teen....

Institutions & Organizations

Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology

Higher Institute of Business Administration- HIBA Stress the theoretical as well as the practical aspects of Management

Research, Resources & Projects

History, Human Right & Politics

Assad.Org A tribute to the late president and a welcome to the new president

BBC Timeline A chronology of key events

Golan This web site is designed to explain how the occupied Golan is a part of the Syrian Homeland, seized by Israel

Political Geography Land and people, economy, history....

World Statesmen Flags, chronology, rulers, governors, ministers, commissioners....

Human Rights, Politics & Political Parties....

Amnesty International News, reports, urgent action. Latest annual report....

Human Rights Watch Human rights developments & report

Syrian Human Rights Committee Dedicated to defending human rights and a civil society in Syria

US Department of State Country reports on human rights practices

Al-Tajamoh Al-Watani Al-Dimocraty Political statement, articles, opinions....

Committees for the Defense of Democratic Freedom and Human Rights

Moslem Brotherhood - Jama't Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimeen News, forums, reports, interviews, personalities, directory....

Syrian Social Nationalist Party Syria is for the Syrians and the Syrians are a complete nation

Related Sites, Articles....

Constitution Background, history & news

Media

Al-Baath Daily newspaper

Al-Thawra Daily newspaper in Damascus - includes Al-Fida, Al-Jamaheer, Al-Mawqef Al-Riyadi, Al-Orouba, Al-Wahda....

Teshreen Daily newspaper

Syria Times Daily newspaper

OnLine News, Newsletters, News Agencies....

Al-Hiwar Al-Dimocraty Political....

Al-Sham Online news and forums....

Syria Daily Online news

Syria Path Online Syrian community featuring local news, discussion forums, and chat rooms

Syria Today Online magazine & web portal covering Syrian economic,social, developmental and cultural affairs

Syrian Arab News Agency - SANA Information, news updates, news analyses, reports, press review, headlines....

Washington Post News & references

Yahoo full news coverage

Radio, TV, Internet....

Syrian Radio & TV News, articles, analysis, forums....

Articles, Reports, Cartoons....

Government & Organizations....

Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members

Political Leaders Dates and figures of the leadership since 1943 (with pictures)

The Presidency Bashar Al-Assad, biography, photos, speeches, news....

Civil Affairs at the Ministry of Interior Services offered to the Syrian and foreign nationals in issues related to civil status, civil registration and the ownership of real estates

Ministry of Economy and Foreign Trade Liberalized foreign trade policy and incentives to foreign investors

Ministry of Information Supervises the function of the various mass communication media in the country

Corporations, Organizations, Public Hospitals and Industrial Entities

Arab Advertising Organization Strengthening the position of advertisement in the country and in promoting its industry

Syrian Telecom Syrian Internet Service Provider

Centers, Institutions, Societies....

Studies Center for Handicapped Research- SCHR Provide for children with special needs good opportunities

Syrian Cosmological Society News, events, activities, links....

Syrian Orthopaedic Association

Foreign Entities

Norwegian Embassy Visa, Beirut, press, news....

US Embassy US mission, consular services, latest news, US policy, journals, articles....

British Counsil Library and information services, events, news, conferences, learn English

United Nations - Syria UN agencies, about Syria....

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Focusing on human development issues....

US Committee for Refugees Reports on conditions for refugees and internally displaced persons

World Food Programme Fight against global hunger....

World Health Organization Tobacco & health, socio-economic situation

Travel & Tourism

Syrian Air Fleet, safety, cargo, schedules

Travel, Tours, Guides.... More country info

Abinos Travel & Tourism Knowledge of the country (past & present time)....

Al-Bichr Travel Meet Syria - Guided tours through the chosen cities and the secret places of old Greek Roman time, Asuriyan times and remains of French influences

Al-Hurriye Tours of Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. History of Syria, cities & sites, Itineraries, Jordan & Lebanon....

Allied Tours Syria map and cities, Syria info, tours....

Arabesk Al-Afaq Tours Combined tours: Syria with Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Yemen and Gulf countries

Atlas Tours About Syria, services....

East & West Travel & Tours Damascus and around Syria Tours

Hammourabi Travel & Tourism Groups and individuals tours to Syria, Lebanon, Jordan etc, general and places info....

The Magic of Syria A popular weekly guaranteed departure program

Nawafir Travel and Tours Discover the wonders of Syria and the Arab world....

Rezon Travel & Tourism Offers a complete package tour services ....

Souria.Com Heritage of Syria through Travel and Tourism, Magazine and Electronic Maps

Soufan Travel & Tourism Golf vacations and Cruises In Syria and Lebanon

Sun Travel & Tourism Package tours In Syria, Jordan and Lebanon

Syria Guide Amazing Syria, travel agents, hotels, restaurants, rent a car, business, art products, health clubs....

Syria Tourism Official site of the Ministry of Tourism. Destinations, travel information and services available to the tourist

Syria Travel Info on archaeological sites, colourful souks, outstanding restaurants, cities, shopping and other genral info

Lonely Planet Travel information, maps, photos, background historical and cultural information

Middle East Travel Accommodation, history, after hours, travel info, addresses, cities & sights, business....

Travel Guide General & travel info, money, duty free, health, accommodation, visas....

Travel Puppy Syria travel information & guide

World Travel Guide Accommodation, addresses, business, climate, essentials, resort, social, travel

Hotels, Resorts, Inns, Hostels....

Carrlton Hotel Overlooking the historical breathtaking scenery of Damascus

Carlton Idleb Hotel Located within the historical sites of northern Syria

Fardoss Tower Hotel Located at the center of Damascus

Pullman Al Shahba Hotel Located close to downtown and historic city center of Aleppo

Regency Park Hotel Located in Bloudan, the countryside of Damascus

Shahin Hotel & Tower Tartous

Venezia Hotel Damascus - An ideal stopover for both business and leisure guests

All Hotels Hotels, description & rates

Syria Hotels Travel Guide Offers hotels and resorts online reservations

Health & Travel Tips

Foreign & Commonwealth Office Travel information, country advise, latest travel updates....

Travel Document Systems Passports, visas, travel documents

Syria Health Directory, journals, hospitals, news, articles

US Consular Information Visa, health, crime/drug penalties....

Weather....

Weather Underground Temperature, humidity, pressure

Yahoo Weather By city. Forcast, sunrise, sunset, humidity, wind, dewpoint....

Gateways to Syria

Al-Sham.Net Directory, Syrian Cities, Chat, News, Fun & Games....

Syria Gate Gateway, services....

Syria Hit Search engine, news, ads....

Syria-Net Directories, news, info....

Syria OnLine Directories, news, About Syria....

Syria Port Catagorized directory, promote Syria, both technically and culturally.

Syrians.Info Catagorized directory, search engine, news, photo gallery....